As an anodyne and febrifuge (bark); aphrodisiac, cordial and stimulant (flowers)

Antiviral (root); as a tonic and stimulant in low fevers and as an emmenagogue (bark); ascarifuge (stem bark); antiscorbutic and astringent (leaves); deobstruent, carminative, diuretic, lithontriptic, and stomachic (fruits); purgative, diuretic and tonic (seed)

Antiseptic and antiasthmatic (leaf and flower); lowers blood sugar (leaf); antihydrotic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cholagogue, galactofuge, stimulant, tonic, vasodilator, laxative, alleviates spasms and reduces fever and nausea (plant); kills insects and carminative (essential oil).

Diuretic, emetic and a strong laxative (inner bark, root bark); stimulant, diaphoretic and diuretic (elder flower); antiseptic (leaves).

Alterative, antibacterial, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, disinfectant, diuretic, expectorant, hemostatic, refrigerant, sedative, stimulant.

Depresses central nervous system (rhizome); anodyne, antibacterial, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, skin, stimulant, stomachic, tonic and vermifuge (root).

Antiseptic, aphrodisiac, carminative, preventitive, sedative, stimulant, tonic, strengthens functioning of the stomach and promotes its action, helpful in arresting secretion or bleeding, essential oil relaxes the involuntary muscle tissues.

Astringent, antibacterial, diuretic, digestive stimulant, tonic, antiviral and wound healer (plant); a mild laxative and diuretic (sap).

Antibacterial, anticancer, antiseptic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, diuretic, stimulant.

An excellent tonic and restorative, helping in stressful times and increasing zest for life; antitussive, aphrodisiac, hepatic, astringent, cardiotonic, cholagogue, expectorant, hypotensive, lenitive, nervine, pectoral, sedative, stimulant, tonic, regulates the cardiovascular system (fruit); antirheumatic (plant)

Antitussive, aphrodisiac, hepatic, astringent, cardiotonic, cholagogue, expectorant, hypotensive, lenitive, nervine, pectoral, sedative, stimulant and tonic (fruit); antirheumatic (plant); anticancer (seed)

Carminative, anthelmintic, diaphoretic, stimulant and antiprotozoal (fruit); hypoglycemic (stem and fruit).

Digestive, diuretic, irritant, respiratory, sedative, stimulant, enhances male sex hormones, tones bladder.

Alterative, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hepatic, stimulant, styptic and tonic (root)

Antihemorrhagic, pungent, demulcent, antispasmodic and antihepatotoxic (seed); sudorific, aperient, diaphoretic and gentle laxative (leaf); astringent, bitter, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, emetic, emmenagogue, hepatic, stimulant, stomachic and tonic (plant)

Astringent, bitter, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, emetic, emmenagogue, hepatic, stimulant, stomachic and tonic (whole plant);

Astringent, menstrual stimulant and an antiparasitic (leaves or bark).

Antibacterial, antifungal, appetizer, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emetic, expectorant, rubefacient and stimulant (seed)

Stimulant, antibacterial, analgesic, rubefacient, expectorant, restorative, febrifuge and antipyretic (seed).

Alterative, demulcent, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic, stimulant and tonic (root)